Urban Unsustainability and Development
Abstract
Welcome to the thirteenth edition issue one of the Africa Habitat Review Journal of the School of the Built Environment, University of Nairobi, Kenya. This edition of Africa Habitat Review has presented ten papers on issues relating to Urban Unsustainability and Development.
The paper entitled The North-South Divide in Urban Patterns and the Contradictions of Using Homogeneous Instruments of Planning: Lessons from Kenya deals with three development pathways that characterize all urban societies in the world and, these, result in different spatial patterns. The first pathway is laissez-faire, which produces informal or organic urban patterns while the second pathway is the preplanned development trajectory which results in the ideal urban patterns. The third pattern is urban decay, which occurs when preplanned patterns reach optimum thresholds. Countries in the ‘North’ have since minimized or eliminated informal development processes in favour of the preplanned pathway. However, countries in the ‘South’, Kenya included, are trapped in a dual development pathway, where informal patterns dominate the urban fabric, and therefore preplanned theories would be ineffective in regulating such patterns. The paper notes that planning theories and instruments were developed in the North to respond to challenges in their urban development scenarios. These foreign instruments were exported to Kenya during colonial rule. However, the study found that the instruments have never been modified to respond to the specific challenges in Kenya, especially those related to organic urban patterns and this is the main factor in ineffective urban planning.
The Unsustainability of Urban Habitat Transformation: A Case Study of Kileleshwa in Nairobi, Kenya paper interrogates the issue of sustainability of the market-driven urban residential transformation of Nairobi through a case study of Kileleshwa, a residential neighbourhood located in the western suburbs of the city. The paper examines the impact of the ongoing transformation from low-density housing to higher density high-rise apartment housing on the sustainability of the urban habitat. This is predicated on an understanding of sustainability in which its components are hierarchically organized to privilege the environmental component over the social and economic ones. The findings indicate that the current production of housing in Kileleshwa is unsustainable. This is demonstrated by the inadequacy of the neighbourhood’s infrastructure in supporting the current trajectory of the habitat’s densification. The paper observes the need to reframe the approach to urban development through a paradigm shift in prioritizing the environmental component of sustainability and deliberate planning for densification in place of the current ad hoc approach to urban development. The paper further observes that sustainable urban development requires both a foregrounding of environmental concerns and the adoption of a holistic approach in the satisfaction of urban needs such as housing with their commensurate physical and social infrastructure. The paper recommends the upgrading of the existing physical infrastructure to support densification, and the redirection of the ongoing urban development towards the more sustainable compact city structure.
Cadastre Systems and Their Effectiveness in Implementation of a GIS-Based Physical Addressing System: A Case Study of Kiambu, Thika and Machakos Towns in Kenya study assesses the effectiveness of the cadastre system as a basis for implementation of a GIS-based physical addressing system. This study reveals that the existing cadastre in Thika, Kiambu and Machakos towns was prepared using different scales, have different datum, are incomplete and inadequate, and not current to support a digital physical addressing system. Only the main streets are named and have no unique numbering and naming of properties. The paper observes that the cadastre systems at their current states in the three towns are not effective as a basis of implementing a GIS-based physical addressing system. The paper recommends an inclusive automation of all cadastre records in the three towns. In addition, there is need to develop a National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) to support physical addressing.
A New Frontier in Collaborative Approaches in Sustainable Open Spaces Delivery in Nairobi City was a study aimed to examine the historical loss of public open spaces in Nairobi City. The paper also examined the residents’ awareness of the importance of the resource and sought to determine the collaborative planning
and governance approaches used for delivery of sustainable open spaces. Study results indicate serious loss
of public open spaces, highlights residents’ awareness of open space benefits and the absence of collaborative
planning and governance practices. This study recommends new governance structures, higher status for urban
planning and sustainable open spaces delivery based on pertinent frameworks achieved through collaborative
governance approaches.
The paper on Evaluation of Property Rates Collection and Enforcement in Devolved Systems of Governance in
Kenya: A Case Study of Nairobi City County focuses on property rates collection and enforcement in devolved
systems of governance in Kenya, specifically in Nairobi City County. The study sought to establish the property
rates Collection Ratio (CR) in Nairobi City County (NCC); identify and measure the effectiveness of property
rates’ collection and enforcement tools in NCC; and determine challenges faced by NCC in rates collection and
enforcement. The study established that collection ratio has been reducing over the years; from 16.93 percent in
2011/2012 to 6.65 percent in 2014/2015. The property rates collection and enforcement tools utilized in Nairobi
City County include provision of discounts and waivers on property rates interest; sanctions and penalties;
and social pressure. The enforcement tools that were found to be effective in ensuring compliance in rates
payment include provision of improved public services; operational debt recovery; sanctions and penalties;
provision of discounts and waivers on interests & penalties. Some of the challenges hindering compliance in
property rates payment in Nairobi City County include negative attitude of the public towards property rates
and rates officials; unfair administration; discontentment with property rates administration; and complexities
in understanding tax system and payment procedures. To improve on compliance, the paper recommends
provision of improved public services to boost the morale of rates’ payers; use of an integrated computer assisted
property rates administration system; and capacity building of the administrators.
Riparian Zones and Their Role in Enhancing Resilience to Flooding in Urban Areas: A Case Study of Nairobi
River Basin is a paper that elaborates the need to investigate the role of functional riparian zones in enhancing
resilience to flooding in urban areas. Specifically, this study examined whether there are developments that are
at a permanent risk of floods as a result of ignoring potential role of the riparian zone, and to assess whether
the criteria used during delimitation of riparian zones is adequate to shield development from effects of floods.
This study established that the width of the river varies along the river profile and depends on the adjoining
topography. The location of the high-water mark therefore is not constant from the river and widens or narrows
depending on the adjoining topography. The study revealed that there are structures that are at permanent risk
of flooding. This study further established that the criteria used during delineation of the riparian zone is not
adequate to protect development from flood hazards. Areas where structures are constructed within defined
active flood areas are constricted and they have blocked the flood paths. As a result, floods get elevated due
to lower rate of evacuation causing localized flooding in areas not ordinarily affected by floods. The paper
concludes that functional riparian zones have potential roles of ensuring flood resilience. The study recommends
regeneration of the active flood areas through relocation of structures and planting of trees. The study further
recommends pegging of inundated flood areas based on the criteria established in the study.
The Production of Space and Place in Informal Settlements: A Case Study of Mukuru Kwa Njenga paper seeks
to understand how the space and place are conceived and used in Nairobi´s informal settlements. Using the
case of Mukuru Kwa Njenga, the study explores three questions around the production of space and place; first,
whether in informal settlements there exists abstract or conceived space, second, whether the space responds
to a structure of power in the area, and third, how do people use day by day the different categories of space
(public, semi-public and private). The study finds that, informal settlements indeed have internal structures
that resemble the formal city, although in a less systematic way. Ownership of resources and the internal
structures of power play a major role in the conception of space into an informal functional space. This study
concludes that understanding the spatial dynamics in the informal settlements and creation of flexible spatial
solutions that allow low income people to have a space and place in the city may be the way towards an inclusive
transformation.
The paper entitled Universal Design Awareness among Urban Planners and Its Impact on Public Transport Systems in Nairobi, Kenya investigates the level of universal design awareness among professionals (engineers,
QS, designers and architects) and the general public in relation to public transport systems in Nairobi-Kenya.
Research results revealed that universal design is not a common concept known to most public transport users.
The major element of perceptions revolved around cost of universal design application. This study established
a lack of a clear framework and policies on universal design application in public transportation services thus
creating inconvenience and difficult transfers at transportation system connections. The study recommends
that universal design application in Nairobi city's public transport needs to consider social inclusiveness and
strengthen the urban planning agenda.
Adaptation of Swahili Architecture and Identity: A Case Study of Lamu Island is the ninth paper in this
thirteenth edition. The author questions cultural identity and the resulting material culture of the Swahili people
in Lamu. This exploration reveals that the cultural identity of Lamu has a history firmly rooted in hybridisation
and transculturation. A comparative analysis of four housing typologies demonstrates that the stone houses
are characterised by variations and adjustments of an otherwise expected model; adapted to meet the dynamic
functions as the town grew with irresolute precepts. The paper recommends that in the phase of a modernising
Lamu, it is thus not necessary to limit cultural identity to physical forms, aesthetics, materials and textures.
Appraisal of Human-Centred Design as a Public Health Tool: Curbing the Incidence of Lifestyle Diseases in
Kenya paper argues that cost-effective and feasible preventive actions for lifestyle diseases in Kenya, through
the use of HCD in designing health programmes, will possibly help avert potentially catastrophic costs for
communities through primordial prevention. The paper observes that designing a successful health intervention
can increase access and uptake of health care and services prompting behaviour change and equally improving
expected health outcomes.
The paper entitled The North-South Divide in Urban Patterns and the Contradictions of Using Homogeneous Instruments of Planning: Lessons from Kenya deals with three development pathways that characterize all urban societies in the world and, these, result in different spatial patterns. The first pathway is laissez-faire, which produces informal or organic urban patterns while the second pathway is the preplanned development trajectory which results in the ideal urban patterns. The third pattern is urban decay, which occurs when preplanned patterns reach optimum thresholds. Countries in the ‘North’ have since minimized or eliminated informal development processes in favour of the preplanned pathway. However, countries in the ‘South’, Kenya included, are trapped in a dual development pathway, where informal patterns dominate the urban fabric, and therefore preplanned theories would be ineffective in regulating such patterns. The paper notes that planning theories and instruments were developed in the North to respond to challenges in their urban development scenarios. These foreign instruments were exported to Kenya during colonial rule. However, the study found that the instruments have never been modified to respond to the specific challenges in Kenya, especially those related to organic urban patterns and this is the main factor in ineffective urban planning.
The Unsustainability of Urban Habitat Transformation: A Case Study of Kileleshwa in Nairobi, Kenya paper interrogates the issue of sustainability of the market-driven urban residential transformation of Nairobi through a case study of Kileleshwa, a residential neighbourhood located in the western suburbs of the city. The paper examines the impact of the ongoing transformation from low-density housing to higher density high-rise apartment housing on the sustainability of the urban habitat. This is predicated on an understanding of sustainability in which its components are hierarchically organized to privilege the environmental component over the social and economic ones. The findings indicate that the current production of housing in Kileleshwa is unsustainable. This is demonstrated by the inadequacy of the neighbourhood’s infrastructure in supporting the current trajectory of the habitat’s densification. The paper observes the need to reframe the approach to urban development through a paradigm shift in prioritizing the environmental component of sustainability and deliberate planning for densification in place of the current ad hoc approach to urban development. The paper further observes that sustainable urban development requires both a foregrounding of environmental concerns and the adoption of a holistic approach in the satisfaction of urban needs such as housing with their commensurate physical and social infrastructure. The paper recommends the upgrading of the existing physical infrastructure to support densification, and the redirection of the ongoing urban development towards the more sustainable compact city structure.
Cadastre Systems and Their Effectiveness in Implementation of a GIS-Based Physical Addressing System: A Case Study of Kiambu, Thika and Machakos Towns in Kenya study assesses the effectiveness of the cadastre system as a basis for implementation of a GIS-based physical addressing system. This study reveals that the existing cadastre in Thika, Kiambu and Machakos towns was prepared using different scales, have different datum, are incomplete and inadequate, and not current to support a digital physical addressing system. Only the main streets are named and have no unique numbering and naming of properties. The paper observes that the cadastre systems at their current states in the three towns are not effective as a basis of implementing a GIS-based physical addressing system. The paper recommends an inclusive automation of all cadastre records in the three towns. In addition, there is need to develop a National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) to support physical addressing.
A New Frontier in Collaborative Approaches in Sustainable Open Spaces Delivery in Nairobi City was a study aimed to examine the historical loss of public open spaces in Nairobi City. The paper also examined the residents’ awareness of the importance of the resource and sought to determine the collaborative planning
and governance approaches used for delivery of sustainable open spaces. Study results indicate serious loss
of public open spaces, highlights residents’ awareness of open space benefits and the absence of collaborative
planning and governance practices. This study recommends new governance structures, higher status for urban
planning and sustainable open spaces delivery based on pertinent frameworks achieved through collaborative
governance approaches.
The paper on Evaluation of Property Rates Collection and Enforcement in Devolved Systems of Governance in
Kenya: A Case Study of Nairobi City County focuses on property rates collection and enforcement in devolved
systems of governance in Kenya, specifically in Nairobi City County. The study sought to establish the property
rates Collection Ratio (CR) in Nairobi City County (NCC); identify and measure the effectiveness of property
rates’ collection and enforcement tools in NCC; and determine challenges faced by NCC in rates collection and
enforcement. The study established that collection ratio has been reducing over the years; from 16.93 percent in
2011/2012 to 6.65 percent in 2014/2015. The property rates collection and enforcement tools utilized in Nairobi
City County include provision of discounts and waivers on property rates interest; sanctions and penalties;
and social pressure. The enforcement tools that were found to be effective in ensuring compliance in rates
payment include provision of improved public services; operational debt recovery; sanctions and penalties;
provision of discounts and waivers on interests & penalties. Some of the challenges hindering compliance in
property rates payment in Nairobi City County include negative attitude of the public towards property rates
and rates officials; unfair administration; discontentment with property rates administration; and complexities
in understanding tax system and payment procedures. To improve on compliance, the paper recommends
provision of improved public services to boost the morale of rates’ payers; use of an integrated computer assisted
property rates administration system; and capacity building of the administrators.
Riparian Zones and Their Role in Enhancing Resilience to Flooding in Urban Areas: A Case Study of Nairobi
River Basin is a paper that elaborates the need to investigate the role of functional riparian zones in enhancing
resilience to flooding in urban areas. Specifically, this study examined whether there are developments that are
at a permanent risk of floods as a result of ignoring potential role of the riparian zone, and to assess whether
the criteria used during delimitation of riparian zones is adequate to shield development from effects of floods.
This study established that the width of the river varies along the river profile and depends on the adjoining
topography. The location of the high-water mark therefore is not constant from the river and widens or narrows
depending on the adjoining topography. The study revealed that there are structures that are at permanent risk
of flooding. This study further established that the criteria used during delineation of the riparian zone is not
adequate to protect development from flood hazards. Areas where structures are constructed within defined
active flood areas are constricted and they have blocked the flood paths. As a result, floods get elevated due
to lower rate of evacuation causing localized flooding in areas not ordinarily affected by floods. The paper
concludes that functional riparian zones have potential roles of ensuring flood resilience. The study recommends
regeneration of the active flood areas through relocation of structures and planting of trees. The study further
recommends pegging of inundated flood areas based on the criteria established in the study.
The Production of Space and Place in Informal Settlements: A Case Study of Mukuru Kwa Njenga paper seeks
to understand how the space and place are conceived and used in Nairobi´s informal settlements. Using the
case of Mukuru Kwa Njenga, the study explores three questions around the production of space and place; first,
whether in informal settlements there exists abstract or conceived space, second, whether the space responds
to a structure of power in the area, and third, how do people use day by day the different categories of space
(public, semi-public and private). The study finds that, informal settlements indeed have internal structures
that resemble the formal city, although in a less systematic way. Ownership of resources and the internal
structures of power play a major role in the conception of space into an informal functional space. This study
concludes that understanding the spatial dynamics in the informal settlements and creation of flexible spatial
solutions that allow low income people to have a space and place in the city may be the way towards an inclusive
transformation.
The paper entitled Universal Design Awareness among Urban Planners and Its Impact on Public Transport Systems in Nairobi, Kenya investigates the level of universal design awareness among professionals (engineers,
QS, designers and architects) and the general public in relation to public transport systems in Nairobi-Kenya.
Research results revealed that universal design is not a common concept known to most public transport users.
The major element of perceptions revolved around cost of universal design application. This study established
a lack of a clear framework and policies on universal design application in public transportation services thus
creating inconvenience and difficult transfers at transportation system connections. The study recommends
that universal design application in Nairobi city's public transport needs to consider social inclusiveness and
strengthen the urban planning agenda.
Adaptation of Swahili Architecture and Identity: A Case Study of Lamu Island is the ninth paper in this
thirteenth edition. The author questions cultural identity and the resulting material culture of the Swahili people
in Lamu. This exploration reveals that the cultural identity of Lamu has a history firmly rooted in hybridisation
and transculturation. A comparative analysis of four housing typologies demonstrates that the stone houses
are characterised by variations and adjustments of an otherwise expected model; adapted to meet the dynamic
functions as the town grew with irresolute precepts. The paper recommends that in the phase of a modernising
Lamu, it is thus not necessary to limit cultural identity to physical forms, aesthetics, materials and textures.
Appraisal of Human-Centred Design as a Public Health Tool: Curbing the Incidence of Lifestyle Diseases in
Kenya paper argues that cost-effective and feasible preventive actions for lifestyle diseases in Kenya, through
the use of HCD in designing health programmes, will possibly help avert potentially catastrophic costs for
communities through primordial prevention. The paper observes that designing a successful health intervention
can increase access and uptake of health care and services prompting behaviour change and equally improving
expected health outcomes.
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